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Global Environment - How Does Soil Form?

Autor:   •  November 6, 2015  •  Course Note  •  1,044 Words (5 Pages)  •  1,037 Views

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Global Environment

Lecture

October 27, 2015

How does soil form?

  • Parent material – the mineral material on which the soil is formed
  • Climate – affects temperature and moisture of soil
  • Topography – influences movement of water over soil
  • Biological activity
  • Influences soil compaction and nutrients in the soil
  • Plant material (using carbon from the air) breaks down into soil
  • a few inches of soil is responsible for all of the growing things on the planet - plants, animals, people including all of the food

Flow of nutrients through food systems

  • food production is a way of redistributing nutrients to human bodies
  • displacement of nutrients is especially a problem for rain forests, where the soil is poor and most of the nutrients are in the vegetation (which gets removed as exotic wood)
  • the more we deplete the harder it is to grow food

(Recent) history of agriculture

Silent Spring

  • birds died from DDT which is used to control mosquitoes
  • Published in 1962 (Rachel Carson)
  • Credited with helping start the modern environmental movement
  • Detailed the effects of heavy pesticide use (esp. DDT)
  • DDT was being used to combat insect pests
  • Thin egg shells in birds
  • Cancer in humans
  • DDT still used for malaria control elsewhere in the world

Why all the pesticides?

  • Because of the natural contradiction btw population and production of food

Famine: inefficiency of medieval agriculture

Standardization: A few changes in global food systems greatly increased reliability and productivity of agriculture

Potato end famine in medieval Europe: manure (nitrogen- and phosphate-rich)

Agriculture before the 19th century

  • Planting and harvesting often still done by hand
  • Seeds are selected for desired traits from year to year
  • Manure is the primary fertilizer

19th Century Guano Island

  • New source of fertilization

Nitrogen and phosphate rich Guano as fertilizer (late 19th century)

Improved yield and farm new land

Agro-industrial complex

  • nutritious crops and abundant fertilizer were the first two components of the agroindustrial complex

Prairie: the almost perfect agricultural landscape

  • fertile soils
  • Deep soil with lots of organic matter
  • Limestone bedrock prevents acidification
  • Problem: erosion; grasses have extensive root system

Tropical rain forest have the poorest soil: nutrients are at the canopy levels and middle levels and all the insects

Standardization on the grain farm

  • Dense roots: prairie root system encouraged specialized “breakers” who owned heavy steel plows and moved from farm to farm.
  • seed drill made planting more efficient in terms of:
  • planting ratio
  • amount of labor required
  • Manual broadcasting means some seeds would land on the hills instead of the furrows and wouldn’t be at the right depth.
  • seed drill improves productivity by as much as 9 times

Agro-industrial complex

  • All four technologies came together to enhance production in the New World (and elsewhere).
  • This ensemble could be applied almost anywhere (though grasslands were still be cheapest land to convert)

Flatboats and the grain trade

  • farmers sold grain to merchants, brought to waterways by wagon
  • Grain was shipped in flatboats like this one to cities.
  • Merchants retained ownership and didn’t get paid until it reached its destination, and therefore carried a lot of risk
  • There was therefore a close relationship between the grain itself and the grain as a salable commodity.

Railroads

  • Railroad was successful not because it was inherently cheaper, although it was faster and made high-volume shipping easier.
  • Fixed costs were large (construction and maintenance, and even fuel and labor), were surprisingly fixed no matter much was being shipped.
  • RR lines gave the best rates to the longest journeys. Thus, those that terminated in Chicago or other urban centers were the cheapest.
  • This encouraged shipping from one city to another directly, enhancing its importance as a center of trade
  • faster
  • potentially cheaper (but required long distances because of fixed costs)

[pic 1]

Mechanization [pic 2]

Standardization

Overcoming Local conditions

  • together, these technologies allowed industrialized societies to overcome many of the traditional limitations to population growth and food production

Green Revolution 1945-1965

  • began in the 1940s in Mexico
  • efforts to develop (by crossbreeding) new, high-yield crop varieties to solve hunger problems
  • used inbred individuals with highly predictable “phenotypes”
  • new crops required higher inputs of fertilizer, pesticide and water

Irrigation

  • irrigated land worldwide has more than tripled since the 1950s

Fertilizer

  • inputs have increased 4x in the last 50 years
  • allows otherwise unproductive land to be farmed
  • input nitrogen (many plants can’t “fix it” ) but also phosphorus and potassium
  • manure is still important as fertilizer in poorer parts of the world, but doesn’t yield as much as inorganic fertilizers

Pesticides

  • Large-scale use of pesticides began in the 1950s.
  • In the 1960s it became known that DDT and others were harmful to wildlife, especially birds (Silent Spring)‏
  • New pesticides were developed in the 1970s
  • insects were developing resistance to older ones

Green Revolution success in India

  • New rice variety produced 3 times more rice per acre than traditional varieties
  • World rice prices dropped from $550/ton in the 1970s to $200/ton in 2001
  • “Solved” hunger problems in India in the 1960s-70s

Social Concerns about Green Revolution Technology

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