Modal Verbs
Autor: Victoria089 • February 2, 2016 • Exam • 5,375 Words (22 Pages) • 1,511 Views
CAN The modal verb can has the following forms: can — the present tense (e.g. He can speak English) and could — the past tense. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English when he was a child), b) in present-time contexts to express unre ality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form implying more uncertainty than can (e.g. He could speak English if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?) Compare with the Russian мог бы: Он мог бы сделать это, если бы у него было время (unreality). He мог бы я вам помочь? (politeness) He ужели он мог бы так сказать"! (uncertainty). Can has the following meanings: 1)ability, capability (He can read a little French). Can is found in all kinds of sentences. It’s followed by the simple infinitive and reference is made to the present. But depending on the context it may also refer to the future. (We can discuss your paper after lunch.) 2)possibility due to circumstances (You can see the forest through the other window.) In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is followed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the present or future. In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by the simple infinitive in this case (You could see the forest through the other window before the new block of houses was erected.) The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may also express unreality with reference to the present or future. (You could see the house from here if it were not so dark.) In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicates that the action was not carried out in the past. (You could have seen the house from there if it had not beenso dark.) 3)permission (You can take my umbrella.) Can in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, interrogative sentences in which a request is expressed, and in negative sentences where it expresses prohibition. In this meaning can is combined with the simple infinitive. The form could with reference to the present is found only in interrogative sentences in which it expresses a more polite request (Could I use your car?) The form could is found in reported speech (He said that I could use his car). 4)uncertainty, doubt (Can it be true?) In this meaning can is found only in interrogative sentences (in general questions). Besides, sentences of this kind are often emotionally coloured. With dynamic verbs, the continuous infinitive is used (Can she be telling lies?) Can in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past. (Can she have told a lie?) The combination of can with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs (Can she really have been at home all this time?) However, if can is followed by a dynamic verb the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used (Can she have been waiting for us so long?) Could with reference to the present is also used in this way, implying more uncertainty (Could it be true?) 5) improbability, (It can't be true.) In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences, which are often emotionally coloured (He can't be really ill). Could is also used in this way making the statement less categorical (It couldn't be true). | MAY The modal verb may has the following forms: may — the present tense (It may be true) and might — the Past tense. The form might is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses (He told me that it might be true) and b) in present-time contexts as a milder and more polite form of may, or as a form implying more uncertainty than may, or to express unreality. May has the following meanings: 1) supposition implying uncertainty (He may be at home). In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference expressed. May in combination with the simple infinitive usually refers the action to the future (He may come soon). The action may also refer to the present but only with stative verbs (He may be ill) May in combination with the Continuous infinitive of dynamic verbs refers the action to the present (It's too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping). May in combination with the Perfect infinitive refers the ac- tion to the past (He may have fallen ill). The combination of may with the Perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the mo ment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs (He may have been at home for about two hours). However, if may is followed by a dynamic verb, the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used (He may have been waiting for us for an hou). In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty, the form might is also found. It differs from the form may in that it emphasizes the idea of uncertainty. It may be followed by the simple, Continuous or Perfect infinitive (He might come soon). 2) possibility due to circumstances (You may order a taxi by telephone). May in this meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences and is followed only by the simple infinitive. The form might is used in past-time contexts in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses (He said he might order a taxi by telephone). Might followed by the Perfect infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out owing to certain circumstances (He might have fallen ill if he hadn't taken the medicine). 3) permission (The director is alone now. So you may see him now). May in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, in interrogative sentences which usually express a request, and in negative sentences where it denotes prohibition. But in negative sentences it is not common as prohibition is generally expressed by other modal verbs (can and must). In this meaning may is combined only with the simple infinitive. In interrogative sentences the form might is also found when we wish to express a more polite request (Might I join you?) In reported speech the form might is used (He asked me if he might join us). 4)disapproval or reproach (You might carry the parcel for me). Here we find only the form might used in affirmative sentences and followed by the simple or Perfect infinitive. | MUST The modal verb must has only one form. It is used in present-time contexts with reference to the present or future and in combination with the Perfect infinitive it refers to the past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i.e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must. Must has the following meanings: 1) obligation (You must talk to your daughter about her future). In different contexts must may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as duty or necessity. In this meaning must is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences and followed only by the simple infinitive. 2) prohibition (He must not leave his room for a while). This meaning is expressed in negative sentences and must is also followed by the simple infinitive. 3) emphatic advice (You must come and see us when you're in London). This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences and is closely connected with the two above mentioned meanings. 4) supposition implying strong probability (He must be ill. He looks so pale). Must in this meaning is found only in affirmative sentences. In this meaning must may be followed by different forms of the infinitive. If reference is made to the present, the Continuous infinitive is used with dynamic verbs (The book is not on the shelf. Jane must be reading it). If must is followed by the simple infinitive of dynamic verbs, it expresses obligation (Jane must read the book). However, with stative verbs the simple infinitive is used to express supposition (He must be over fifty). Must in combination with the Perfect infinitive refers the action to the past (It is six o'clock. She must have come home). The combination of must with the Perfect Continuous infinitive indicates an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking (It must have been raining all the night). However, if must is followed by a stative verb, the Perfect infinitive is used (He must have been here since breakfast). TO BE TO To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past tenses (We are to meet at six. We were to meet at six). To be to as a modal verb has the following meanings: 1) a previously arranged plan or obligation resulting from the arrangement (We are to discuss it next time). This meaning of to be to is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences in the present and past tenses. To be to is followed by the simple infinitive. The past tense of the verb to be to in combination with the Perfect infinitive denotes an unfulfilled plan (I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together). 2) orders and instructions, often official (Norman says I am to leave you alone). In this meaning to be to is found in affirmative and negative sentences and followed by the simple infinitive. 3) something that is destined to happen (He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come). It occurs in affirmative and negative sentences and isfollowed by the simple infinitive. 4) possibility (Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metro Pole). It is used in all kinds of sentences in the present and past tenses and is followed by the passive infinitive.
| OUTHT TO The modal verb ought to has only one form which is used with reference to the present or future. In reported speech it reins unchanged. Ought is always followed by the infinitive with to. Ought to has the following meanings: 1) obligation, which in different contexts may acquire additinal shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability (You ought to say a word or two about yourself). In this meaning ought to is possible in all kinds of sentences. Generally ought to refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. With reference to the present oughtto is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative (At your age you ought to be earning your living). In combination with the perfect infinitive ought to in the affirmative form shows that a desirable action was not fulfilled (You ought to have chosen a more suitable time to tell me this news). In the negative form ought to in combination with the Perfect infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled (I'm sorry. I oughtn't to have said it). 2) supposition implying strong probability (The new sanatorium ought to be very comfortable). The use of ought to in this case is not very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must. SHALL In modern English the modal meaning of obligation in shall is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense. Shall is still used to express obligation with the second and third persons, but at present it is not common in this meaning in spoken English. At present, however, this meaning of obligation, somewhat modified, is found with the second and third persons in sentences expressing promise, threat or warning. It is used in affirmative and negative sentences and combined with the simple infinitive (You shall have my answer tomorrow). The meaning of obligation may also be traced in interrogative sentences where shall is used with the first and third persons to ask after the will of the person addressed. In this case it is also followed by the simple infinitive (Shall I get you some fresh coffee, Miss Fleur?) SHOULD In modern English the modal verb should is used with reference to the present or future. It remains unchanged in re ported speech. Should has the following meanings: 1) obligation, which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability (It's late. You should go to bed). Should in this meaning is found in all kinds of sentences. It’s generally refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. With reference to the present should is used with the Continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative (You shouldn't be sitting in the sun). Should may be combined with the Perfect infinitive. In this case the meaning of the combination depends on whether the sentence is affirmative or negative. In an affirmative sentence should + Perfect infinitive indicates that a desirable action was not carried out (He looks very ill. He should have stayed at home). In a negative sentence should + Perfect infinitive serves to show that an undesirable action was carried out (They shouldn't have concealed it from us). 2) supposition implying strong probability (The film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors). The use of should in this case does not seem to be very common as this meaning is usually rendered by must. Should may have a peculiar function — it may be used for emotional colouring. In this function it may be called the emotional should. |
WILL AND WOULD The verb will1 has the following forms: will — the present tense and would — the past tense. The latter form is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts to express an actual fact and b) in present-time contexts to express unreality or as a milder and more polite form of Will. The use of will and would which denotes an actual fact in the past is parallel in the following cases: 1) When they express habitual or recurrent actions (She will (would) sit for hours under the old oak tree looking at the beautiful country around her). In addition to indicating a habitual action, will (would) in this case implies willingness, personal interest on the part of the doer of the action. Will (would) in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. In present-time contexts will in this meaning is not common. In past-time contexts would is mainly characteristic of literary style. 2) When they express refusal to perform an action (The doctor knows I won't be operated on. He was wet through, but he wouldn't change). This meaning is found in negative sentences; will (would) is followed by the simple infinitive. 3) When they are used with lifeless things to show that a thing fails to perform its immediate function (The door won't (wouldn't) open). In this meaning will (would) is found in negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. 4) When they are used with the first person to express will, intention or determination, (We decided that we wouldn't interfere). This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences. The present tense will, in addition to expressing its modal meaning, serves to refer an action to the future; the past tense would is generally used in reported speech and also serves to refer an action to the future but in this case it is viewed from a past moment. The use of will and would which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a milder or more polite form of will is parallel in the following cases: 1)in interrogative sentences where they express willingness, consent (Will you dine with me tomorrow, Lewis?) 2)in clauses of condition introduced by if where they also express willingness, consent, ("It's about forty minutes' walk from here and if you'll come now I'll go with you," she said). In both cases will (would) is followed by the simple infinitive and the action always refers to the future. The use of will and would is not parallel in the follow ing cases: 1)Will may be used to express supposition with reference to the present or to the future in combination with the simple infinitive, or to the past in combination with the Perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the second and third persons. (This will be the school, I believe). 2)Would may be used rather sarcastically to express that something was to be expected. It is found in affirmative and negative sentences ("Auntie Meg has been very brave." "Yes. She would be brave”). Adverbial Clauses of Comparison In clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though we find the form of the Past Indefinite including the form were for all the persons or the Past Perfect. The form of the Past Indefinite (or Continuous) shows that the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause (He asked me the question as if the answer were really important to him). The form of the Past Perfect (Continuous) shows that the action of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the principal clause (The dog rushed at me and licked my hands in a frenzy of delight as if I had been away a long time). If the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause, would + infinitive is used ( She sank back on her chair and leaning her head on her hands began to weep as though her heart would break). The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in such clauses. Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession Complex sentences with a clause of concession intro introduced by the conjunction even if or even though are built up on the same pattern as sentences of unreal condition — the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause and the Conditional Mood, Present or Past, in the principal clause. e.g. But even if you were right, I should be prepared for any con- tingency. | NEED The modal verb need may be used either as a defective or as a regular verb. 1) Need as a defective verb has only one form which is the present tense. In reported speech it remains unchanged. It is followed by the infinitive without to. Need expresses necessity. When reference is made to the present or future it is followed by the simple infinitive. It is used in negative and interrogative sentences. In interrogative sentences need usually implies that there is no necessity of performing the action (You needn't be afraid of me). In combination with the Perfect infinitive need expresses an action which has been performed though it was unnecessary. It implies a waste of time or effort (You needn't have come. The deal is off) 2) As a regular verb need can have all the necessary forms, in- cluding the verbals. It also expresses necessity. It is followed by the infinitive with to and is mainly used in interrogative and negative sentences (He did not need to explain). DARE The modal verb dare may also be used as a regular and as a defective verb. 1) Dare as a defective verb has two forms which are the present and the past forms. It means 'to have the courage or impertinence to do something.' Its use is very restricted. In present-day English it is mainly found in questions beginning with how, which are actually exclamations, and in negative sentences (How dare you say that!) 2)Dare as a regular verb has all the necessary forms including the verbals. It has the same meaning as the defective dare. Its use is also restricted. It is mainly found in negative sentences (He does not dare to come here again). 3)Note the colloquial set phrase / dare say (I dare say I looked a little confused). Adverbial Clauses of Purpose An adverbial modifier of purpose is usually expressed by an infinitive when the agent of that infinitive is the same as the subject in the sentence (He said that he was going out to buy some stationary). The infinitive may sometimes {though not often) be preceded by in order or so as. (I had to keep drinking coffee in order to stay awake). So as is more often used to introduce a negative infinitive, A subordinate clause of purpose is found when the subject of this clause is not the same as the subject of the principal clause. Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction so that (sometimes that or in order that, both of which are characteristic of literary style, and so, which is colloquial). The predicate in these clauses is expressed by may or can + infinitive and the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case (She dressed quickly for dinner so that she might see him the sooner). If the verb in the subordinate clause is in the negative form, should + infinitive is preferred (I stood up, my back turned so that he should not see my face). In literary style we sometimes find clauses of purpose introduced by the conjunction lest (чтобы... не). l In this case should + infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the subordinate clause. As the conjunction lest is negative in meaning, the verb is in the affirmative formflow from them (Не withdrew his eyes lest she should read them). The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here. Sometimes, though not often, the Indicative Mood (the Future Indefinite) is used in adverbial clauses of purpose instead of mod- al phrases (She gave him the key so that he would lock the car). The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in a Special Type of Exclamatory Sentences The form of the Past Indefinite including the form were is used in the following type of exclamatory sentences to express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. Oh, if only Daddy were home! In the above examples reference is made to the present. With reference to the past the form of the Past Perfect is used, Oh, if only he had given me a chance! When the sentence refers to the future we find would + infinitive or could + infinitive, Oh, if only you would see a doctor! Sentences of this kind are very emphatic and restricted to spoken English. Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condition Complex sentences with a subordinate clause of condition (conditional sentences)1 may be divided into two groups: sentences of real condition and sentences of unreal condition. In sentences of real condition we find the Indicative Mood. They usually refer to the future, so the Future tense is used in the principal clause and the present tense in the if-clause. (If you continue in this way you'll break your mother's heart). Sentences of real condition may also refer to the present or past, though not very often. I always lose money if I bet. In sentences of unreal condition we find forms expressing unreality: the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect is used in the if-clause, and the Conditional Mood (Present and Past) is used in the principal clause. The action of the if-clause is represented by the speaker as contradicting reality; consequently the action of the principal clause, which depends on this unreal condition, cannot be realized either. When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the present or future, the form of the Past Indefinite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause (How nice it would be for Mother if we had a car). When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the past, we find the form of the Past Perfect in the if-clause and the Past Conditional Mood in the principal clause. (I should have been sorry if I hadn't spoken). Sentences of unreal condition referring to the future may be of four types: l 1) The first type has already been described: the Past Indefi nite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause (Half of the people would distrust you if you went away at such a moment). 2)As the above type of conditional sentences may refer to both the present and the future. In this type of condition the modal verb to be to followed by an infinitive in the if-clause. In the principal clause the Conditional Mood is used (Mother would resist it bitterly if I were to ask for breakfast at this hour). 3) Should + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the Future Indefinite of the Indicative Mood in the principal clause (I don't expect any telephone calls tonight). 4) Sometimes would + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause (I'd love it if you would call me Eliza). | IN OBJECT CLAUSES In object clauses the use of different forms of the predicate depends on the lexical character of the predicate verb in theprincipal clause. As a rule, we find the Indicative Mood in object clauses after However, after certain verbs and expressions we find forms of unreality in object clauses. Thus should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood (The infinitive without to) is used after expressions of suggestion, order or decision such as to decide, to demand…(She urged that they go to Europe). In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, this should is never combined with the Perfect infinitive. Clauses of this kind are usually introduced by the conjunction that.The rules of the sequence of tenses are not ob served in object clauses of this type (They propose(d) that the issue should be discussed in a week). In object clauses subordinated to the principal clause with it as a formal subject we find the Indicative Mood after such expressions as it is wonderful (natural, strange, singular, absurd-terrible, monstrous, queer, odd, etc.) it infuriated (outraged-startled, surprised, puzzled) me and the like. The Indicative Mood is also used after it is possible (likely, probable) in affirmative sentences. (It's just possible that .he left them alone). Clauses of this kind are usually introduced by the conjunction that. The rules of the sequence of tenses when the Indicative Mood is used. Yet, after certain other expressions in the principal clause the modal phrase should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is always used in the object clause. They are expressions of necessity or recommendation, such as it is necessary (important, vital, imperative, essential, urgent, advisable, desirable); we also find these forms after the Passive Voice of some verbs expressing suggestion, order, decision, such as it is suggested (proposed, re- quired, demanded, requested, recommended, decided, agreed, deter- mined, arranged). ("It is necessary that they be careful in the lab," he added). In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, should is never combined with the Perfect infinitive in such constructions. Clauses of this kind are usually introduced by the conjunction that. Note that the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed there (It was arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to himself). After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be fearful, to be frightened, to be in terror, to be nervous, to be terrified, to be troubled, to fear, to have apprehension, to tremble and others, we commonly find the Indicative Mood in the object clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are observed in this kind of clauses (I am afraid nothing has been done yet). Occasionally we also find may + infinitive in object clauses after expressions of fear. The rules of the sequence of tenses are also observed in this case (She's afraid he may miss his only chance). But in literary style, object clauses are sometimes introduced by the conjunction lest. In this case should + infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the object clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here (They were terrified lest someone should discover their secret hiding place). In object clauses introduced by the conjunctions if and whether after expressions of doubt and negative expressions we sometimes find the form were (He would wonder for a moment, looking into her shining eyes, if it were true). Traditional Use of Forms Expressing Unreality § 161. The Subjunctive Mood and the form were may be found in simple sentences. Their use in this case is based on tradition. a) The Subjunctive Mood serves to express wish in the follow- ing kinds of sentences. Long live the Queen! Success attend you! Be ours a happy meeting! God bless you. Heaven forbid. b) The Subjunctive Mood serves to express concession in the following sentences which can be treated as set phrases in modern English. So be it. (Да будет так.) Come what will. (Будь, что будет.) c)The Subjunctive Mood is found in the expressions Suffice to say that... (Достаточно сказать, что...) and Far be it from me... (Я далек от того, чтобы...). Far be it from me to contradict you. d) The Subjunctive Mood is also used in certain imprecations, Manners be hanged. (К черту хорошие манеры.) e) The form were is found in the set phrase as it were (так сказать, как бы) which is used parenthetically. They were silent and, as it were, oppressed. f) Would + infinitive is found in as luck would have it (пo счастливому стечению обстоятельств) or as ill luck would have if (на беду, как на зло). As luck would have it, I was invited for that night | WISH WISH In object clauses after the verb to wish we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were) or the Past Perfect to ex press a wish which cannot be fulfilled or a hardly realizable wish (I wish it were true). Object clauses after the verb to wish are usually joined to the principal clause asyndetically, though sometimes the conjunction that is found. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this construction. In object clauses after the verb to wish the tense forms indicate the following: 1)The use of the Past Indefinite form shows that the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause (I wish(ed) he were with us). 2)f the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the form of the Past Perfect is used (I wish(ed) he had stayed at home). 3) When the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause, we find the modal verbs would + infintive, might + infinitive and could + infinitive in the subordinate clause (I wish(ed) you might stay with us a little longer). After the idiomatic phrase it is time (also it is high time, it is about time) we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were). It's high time you were in bed too, my child. Clauses of this kind are usually joined to the principal clause asyndetically. (бессоюзно) The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this kind of clauses. It's time we had lunch. It was time we had lunch. The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in Appositive and Predicative Clauses In appositive clauses which are usually introduced by the conjunction that the use of different forms of the predicate depends on the lexical character of the noun they modify. As a rule, the Indicative Mood is found in this kind of clauses. The rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case (The idea that he thought himself anything but intelligent was absurd). But should + infinitive (or rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in appositive clauses after nouns expressing order, suggestion, wish, agreement and decision, such as agreement, ambition, decision, demand, desire, order, proposal, recommendation, request, require ment, suggestion, understanding, wish and some others (He told me of his desire that all should be happy as long as it involved no inconvenience to himself). The Indicative Mood is used in this case (The trouble is that he didn't find him in). The rules of the sequence of tenses are observed in this case. But when the subject of the principal clause is ex- pressed by one of such nouns as aim, arrangement, condition, decision, idea, plan, proposal, suggestion, wish and some others, should + infinitive is used in the subordinate clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed (His desire was that life should fall in with his own limited but deliberate plans). |
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